For decades – perhaps longer – each generation of human society has adopted a genre of music to identify with. Many writers have understood this phenomenon in terms of the emerging identity of the adolescents of that generation, while others have emphasized the cathartic use of the generation’s music to express itself in less aggressive terms than might otherwise emerge. John Wesley was known to have taken well-known bar ditties and turned them into Christian hymns in the early Reformation movement – much to the chagrin of the established society of the time!
And so it is no wonder that the music of today is often denigrated, and associated in a causal manner with all sorts of societal evil. Many current environmental factors have influenced this recurring pattern, however, in ways unique to this time. The digital era has allowed music genres of yesteryear to be resurrected in an unprecedented manner, to compete with the music being generated by today’s youth, so that today music is indeed trans-generational. The ease with which music is transported from one listener to another has made every possible style of music available in an instant to any person – even across cultures – so that music is also now trans-cultural. One might argue that these factors have diluted the impact on adolescents of any specific genre of music. At the same time, the ease with music is both produced and disseminated has exposed many more music artists, along with their messages and lyrics as well as sound.
So the question remains – is there truly a causal relationship between sexual mores, drug abuse, and music? Looking at the psychological research literature, some general statements can be made. A study in 2006 demonstrated a clear correlation between crack users and rap music. This is an opportune moment to emphasize the difference between causality and correlation. What this study demonstrated was that crack users are more likely than not to listen to rap music; it did not demonstrate, and in fact cannot, that listening to rap music leads an individual toward crack music. Another study actually differentiated between several kinds of rap music (French-Canadian, American, “gangsta” rap) with a correlation between the first and last of those sub-classifications and drug use but not with American rap. And in fact, another study found that adolescents list lyrics as one of the least important variables of what makes them like music, and most of the time do not know what the lyrics mean or actually even say. It is difficult to make a case, therefore that music, even music that explicitly encourages sexual promiscuity and illicit drug use, influence adolescents to engage in drug abuse.
Let’s not yet the influence of music completely off the hook, however. A study in Scotland found that although very few of the adolescents in the study had every used ecstasy (MDMA), “fans” of rave music were more likely to have used drugs than those who preferred other styles of music; a significant relationship was found between identification with rave music and life-time drug use. Another study noted clearly significant relationships between heavy metal music and suicide among adolescent girls and between heavy metal music and drug abuse among adolescent males.
In a 2003 study of African-American adolescents, 93 songs listed by the participants were categorized by genre and then evaluated for their pro-drug lyrical content. The most popular genres were R&B (34%), gangsta rap (32%), and non-gangsta rap (27%). The majority of rap (68%) and gangsta rap (80%) songs contained at least one reference to illicit drugs, whereas few R & B songs did (6%). Marijuana and stimulants were the most commonly referred to drugs. Another study, a meta-review of epidemiological studies showed that that rock music is a positive predictor of several forms of drug use and arrests, while religious music is linked to decreased drug use and arrests. Specific relationships were also found between country music and alcohol and between urban music and marijuana. Overall, the results were consistent with the idea that age-appropriate music decreases drug use and arrests, and age-inappropriate music increases drug use and arrests. And finally, a study in the Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drug Abuse found that listening to rap music was significantly and positively associated with alcohol use, problematic alcohol use, illicit-drug use, and aggressive behaviors. In addition, alcohol and illicit-drug use were positively associated with listening to musical genres of techno and reggae. This relationship was positive even when other related factors such as gender or socio-economic status were accounted for. Other variables such as sensation seeking, age, gender and race/ethnicity were also significantly related to substance use and aggressive behaviors. The author’s conclusions: young people’s substance use and aggressive behaviors may be related to their frequent exposure to music containing references to substance use and violence. Again, it is not clear if the exposure to such music leads to drug abuse or simply reinforces it; and it may be that music listening preference simply reflects some personal predispositions or lifestyle preferences. And there is also the possibility that substance use, aggression, and music preference are independent constructs that are significantly related to some other as-of-yet unidentified factor.
But what is clear is that music that contains strong references in a positive fashion to drug abuse and aggression are a part of the drug abuse “culture.” As many addicts in recovery will attest to, establishing abstinence from drugs is only the first step, and in some cases actually the easiest step. Giving up the addict identity and culture is just as important, and is so pervasive and often indirect that the relationship with addiction relapse is not always obvious. After all, what do body piercings, tattoos, sagging pants, side-ways-worn baseball caps, and spiked hair have to do with drug abuse? Quite simply, the culture that supports drug abuse reinforces an addictive way of thinking – and to break the patterns of thinking is one of the key elements to permanent sobriety. Yes, there are clean-cut, shaven, “preppie” addicts, and there are counter-culture sober young adults. But there is no doubt that walking, talking, and dressing to fit in to the mainstream culture of society is an important marker of early sobriety. Part of it is willingness: to live out that sobriety means more than cultural style. But the main part of it is simply removing the reinforcers that have supported a culturally-sanctioned use of illicit drugs.
Donald Durham, Ph.D., Licensed Psychologist
Clinical Director, Gatehouse Academy
September 2007
Crack rap. Gary Hayes, Drugs and Alcohol Today; Dec 2006; 6, 4; ProQuest Psychology Journals pg. 12.
HIP-HOP'S BAD RAP. Rebecca Leigh Fox, Psychology Today; Oct 2004; 37, 5; ProQuest Psychology Journals, pg. 32.
LEER-ICS OR LYRICS: Teenage Impressions of Rock ‘n’ rock. Lorraine E. Prinsky and Jill Leslie Rosenbaum, California State University, Fullerton. Youth and Society; June 1987: 18,4; pages 384-397.
Musical preference as an indicator of adolescent drug use. Alasdair J M Forsyth; Marina Barnard; Neil P McKeganey. Addiction; Oct 1997; 92, 10; ProQuest Psychology Journals, pg. 1317.
Heavy metal music and adolescent suicidal risk. Eric Lacourse; Michel Claes; Martine Villeneuve.
Journal of Youth and Adolescence; Jun 2001; 30, 3; ProQuest Psychology Journals, pg. 321.
Substance Use References in the Lyrics of Favorite Songs of African-American Adolescents. Trenita Brookshire, Celeste Davis, Erin Stephens, and Sharronne Bryant, Advisors: Dorothy C. Browne, Ph.D., Patty Clubb, Ph.D., Morgan State University, University of North Carolina - Chapel Hill. Psychology & Social Sciences, Issue 1, August 2003.
Vuolo, M. C. and Uggen, C. Music and Drugs: A Fixed Effects Analysis of Cultural Preferences and Substance Use in U.S. Radio Markets. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Sociological Association, Marriott Hotel, Loews Philadelphia Hotel, Philadelphia, PA. August 2005.
